A global experiment on motivating social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic
2 Durham University
3 UOR - University of Reading
4 Clarkson University
5 UAEU - United Arab Emirates University
6 MVL - Wolfson Medical Vision Laboratory
7 UMN - University of Minnesota [Twin Cities]
8 University of Pécs
9 University of Ljubljana
10 Department of Experimental Psychology
11 EESC-GEM - Grenoble Ecole de Management
12 Chercheur indépendant
13 Indiana University of Pennsylvania
14 UF - University of Florida [Gainesville]
15 Senshu University
16 Kyushu University
17 HKU - The University of Hong Kong
18 Shanghai University
19 UvA - Universiteit van Amsterdam = University of Amsterdam
20 Claremont Graduate University [Claremont, CA ]
21 University of Toronto
22 MSU - Montclair State University [USA]
23 INSEAD - Institut Européen d'administration des Affaires
24 UNIANDES - Universidad de los Andes [Bogota]
25 EdUHK - The Education University of Hong Kong
26 Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez = University Adolfo Ibañez [Santiago]
27 NSU - Nova Southeastern University
28 UK - Univerzita Karlova [Praha, Česká republika] = Charles University [Prague, Czech Republic] = Université Charles [Prague, Republique tchèque]
29 HSE - Vysšaja škola èkonomiki = National Research University Higher School of Economics [Moscow]
30 Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration
31 Universität Heidelberg [Heidelberg] = Heidelberg University
32 University of Belgrade [Belgrade]
33 Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek
34 New Bulgarian University
35 University of Zadar
36 Universität Wien = University of Vienna
37 UEL - University of East London
38 USQ - University of Southern Queensland
39 UnB - Universidade de Brasilia = University of Brasilia [Brasília]
40 Universität Witten/Herdecke
41 BETA - Bureau d'Économie Théorique et Appliquée
42 Macquarie University [Sydney]
43 University of Bristol [Bristol]
44 WLU - Wilfrid Laurier University
45 RAS - Russian Academy of Sciences [Moscow]
46 Stockholm University
47 University of Dhaka
48 MMU - Manchester Metropolitan University
49 Department of Science and Engineering [University of Waseda]
50 ELTE - Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem = Eötvös Loránd University [Budapest]
51 UJ - Uniwersytet Jagielloński w Krakowie = Jagiellonian University = Université Jagellon de Cracovie
52 ZHAW - Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften = Zurich University of Applied Sciences
53 SUT - Suranaree University of Technology
54 ICAM - Institut Catholique d'Arts et Métiers
55 Auteur indépendant
56 University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus
57 Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences - Karl Landsteiner Privatuniversität für Gesundheitswissenschaften [Krems an der Donau, Austria]
58 The University of Mississippi [Oxford]
59 TAPMI - T. A. Pai Management Institute
60 UM5 - Université Mohammed V de Rabat [Agdal]
61 LIP-PC2S - Laboratoire Inter-universitaire de Psychologie : Personnalité, Cognition, Changement Social
62 UWr - University of Wrocław [Poland] = Uniwersytet Wrocławski [Polska] = Universität Breslau [Polen] = Université de Wrocław [Pologne]
63 UGent - Universiteit Gent = Ghent University = Université de Gand
64 RUB - Ruhr University Bochum = Ruhr-Universität Bochum [Bochum]
65 Bar-Ilan University [Israël]
66 McGill University = Université McGill [Montréal, Canada]
67 UFV - University College of the Fraser Valley
68 Università degli studi della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" = University of the Study of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli
69 University of Maribor
70 Department of Psychology [University of Roma "La Sapienza"]
71 University of Warwick [Coventry]
72 Universidade do Porto = University of Porto
73 Åbo Akademi University [Turku]
74 Universidad Regional Amazonica Ikiam
75 Universidad de Guadalajara
76 University of Novi Sad
77 UNSW - University of New South Wales [Sydney]
78 CAM - University of Cambridge [Cambridge, UK]
79 SU - Stellenbosch University
80 UWC - University of the Western Cape
81 ETU - Erzurum Technical University
82 Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien [Tübingen]
83 Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen = University of Tübingen
84 Department of Biological Psychology [Amsterdam]
85 Urmia University
86 Opole University of Technology
87 UNICSUL - Universidade Cruzeiro do Sul
88 UMAG - Universidad de Magallanes = University of Magallanes
89 Northern Illinois University
90 ACU - Australian Catholic University
91 PUCP - Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú = Pontifical Catholic University of Peru
92 Tarbiat Modares University [Tehran]
93 Tilburg University [Netherlands]
94 UFMT - Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso
95 University of Konstanz
96 BGU - Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
97 ODU - Ohio Dominican University
98 University of Tehran
99 ISCTE-IUL - Instituto Universitário de Lisboa
100 CRACS INESC - Center for Research in Advanced Computing Systems
101 Sofia University Saint Kliment Ohridski - Софийски университет „Свети Климент Охридски
102 MPIfG - Max-Planck-Institut für Gesellschaftsforschung
103 Stadtverwaltung Wuppertal
104 University of Adelaide
105 Jacobs University = Constructor University [Bremen]
106 Opole University of Technology
107 UP System - University of the Philippines
108 TU/e - Eindhoven University of Technology [Eindhoven]
109 UPJS - Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice
110 Ateneo de Manila University
111 FAU - Florida Atlantic University [Boca Raton]
112 University of Essex
113 Faculty of Psychology [Univ. Vienna]
114 UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes
115 Concordia University = Université Concordia [Montreal]
116 AUEB - Athens University of Economics and Business
117 Universidad Nacional de Córdoba [Argentina]
118 CONICET - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas [Buenos Aires]
119 Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge
120 DEUSTO - Universidad de Deusto
121 UMB - Universidad Manuela Beltrán
122 AE-FUNAI - Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo
123 SWPS - SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities
124 Psychological Institute of Russian Academy of Education
125 Kent State University
126 Ǧāmiʿat͏̈ Hayfā = University of Haifa
127 Case Western Reserve University [Cleveland]
128 UNAM - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México = National Autonomous University of Mexico
129 SDU - University of Southern Denmark = Syddansk Universitet
130 University of Oxford
131 LSE - London School of Economics and Political Science
132 VSE - Prague University of Economics and Business
133 DIPF - Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education
134 Penn State - Pennsylvania State University [State College, PA]
135 University of Delaware [Newark]
136 SIS - Singapore Management University
137 University of Hildesheim
138 USON - Universidad de Sonora - University of Sonora [Hermosillo, Mexico]
139 LHUMAIN - Langages HUmanités Médiations Apprentissages Interactions Numérique
140 BU - Bournemouth University [Poole]
141 GCU - Government College University [Lahore]
142 UMCS - Maria Curie-Sklodowska University
143 Universidad del Desarrollo
144 Middlebury College
145 University of Vermont [Burlington]
146 UCL - University College London [UCL]
147 UCY - University of Cyprus [Nicosia]
148 Unipd - Università degli Studi di Padova = University of Padua
149 Singidunum University
150 UP Diliman - University of the Philippines Diliman
151 UniMe - Università degli Studi di Messina = University of Messina
152 UPVM - Université Paul-Valéry - Montpellier 3
153 Bilkent University [Ankara]
154 University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
155 University of Delhi
156 UiB - University of Bergen
157 Western Norway University of Applied Sciences
158 University of Prešov
159 Univerzita Komenského = Comenius University [Bratislava]
160 University of Leeds
161 UNIS - University of Surrey
162 Karolinska Institutet = Karolinska Institute [Stockholm]
163 University of Silesia in Katowice
164 NKUA - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
165 UiO - University of Oslo
166 UNIMI - Università degli Studi di Milano = University of Milan
167 University of Louisiana
168 UFRO - Universidad de la frontera [Tecumo, Chile] = University of La Frontera [Tecumo, Chile] = Université de La Frontera [Tecumo, Chili]
169 Radboud University [Nijmegen]
170 USP - Universidade de São Paulo = University of São Paulo
171 University of Bath [Bath]
172 UNIMIB - Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca = University of Milano-Bicocca
173 University of Birmingham [Birmingham]
174 Ithaca College
175 UNAV - Universidad de Navarra [Pamplona]
176 LPC - Laboratoire de Psychologie des Cognitions
177 MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology
178 Northumbria University [Newcastle]
179 UCC - University College Cork
180 Occidental College
181 JMU - Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg = University of Würzburg [Würsburg, Germany]
182 University of Primorska
183 Universidad del Rosario [Bogota]
184 UMB - Matej Bel University
185 Lancaster University
186 UQ [All campuses : Brisbane, Dutton Park Gatton, Herston, St Lucia and other locations] - The University of Queensland
187 Sewanee: The University of the South
188 Emporia State University
189 Murdoch University [Perth]
190 Adekunle Ajasin University
191 University of Canberra
192 The University of Edinburgh
193 Willamette University
194 UiT - The Arctic University of Norway [Tromsø, Norway]
195 Erasmus University Rotterdam
196 UWA - The University of Western Australia
197 School of Psychology and Neuroscience [University of St. Andrews]
198 SIU - Southern Illinois University [Carbondale]
199 UV - Universitat de València = University of Valencia = Universidade de Valencia
200 Tilburg University [Tilburg]
201 Kingston University [London]
202 UVAS - University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences [Lahore, Pakistan]
203 Stevens Institute of Technology [Hoboken]
204 UNIGE - Université de Genève = University of Geneva
205 Goethe University Frankfurt = Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
206 Leipzig University / Universität Leipzig
207 ULIMA - Universidad de Lima
208 Georgia State University
209 VCU - Virginia Commonwealth University
210 Aarhus University [Aarhus]
211 UA - University of Alabama [Tuscaloosa]
212 UC Berkeley - University of California [Berkeley]
213 USI - University of Southern Indiana
214 University of Mannheim = Universität Mannheim
215 University of Manchester [Manchester]
216 University of Sheffield [Sheffield]
217 Bangalore University
218 Atilim University
219 Universitatea "Lucian Blaga" Sibiu
220 UC - Universidade de Coimbra = University of Coimbra [Portugal]
221 Ankara University School of Medicine [Turkey]
222 St. Petersburg Academic University–Nanotechnology Research and Education Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences
223 FIT - Fukuoka Institute of Technology
224 Nottingham Trent University
225 MASA - Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts [Skopje, North Macedonia]
226 TU Graz - Graz University of Technology [Graz]
227 MSKU - Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi [Türkiye Cumhuriyetı] = Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University [Türkiye] = Université Sıtkı Koçman de Muğla [Turquie]
228 NNU - Nanjing Normal University
229 Chulalongkorn University [Bangkok]
230 Ankara University = Ankara Üniversitesi
231 BCM - Baylor College of Medicine
232 CLLE - Cognition, langues, langage, ergonomie
233 SFU.ca - Simon Fraser University = Université Simon Fraser
234 RHUL - Royal Holloway [University of London]
235 UMPCD - University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Carol Davila”
236 Purdue University [West Lafayette]
237 Aalto University
238 UQAM - Université du Québec à Montréal = University of Québec in Montréal
239 ITESM - Tecnológico de Monterrey = Monterrey Institute of Technology
240 FSU - Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena = Friedrich Schiller University Jena = Université de Iéna [Jena, Germany]
241 UNIROMA - Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza" = Sapienza University [Rome]
242 FUM - Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
243 FIU - Florida International University [Miami]
244 Universiteit Leiden = Leiden University
245 Curtin University
246 AKU - Afyon Kocatepe University
247 Hacettepe University = Hacettepe Üniversitesi
248 Swinburne University of Technology [Melbourne]
249 Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar
250 FSU - Florida State University [Tallahassee]
251 ULCR - Universidad Latina de Costa Rica
252 BNU - Beijing Normal University
253 MLU - Martin-Luther-Universität Halle Wittenberg - Martin-Luther-University Halle Wittenberg
254 LPS (URP_4471) - Laboratoire de Psychologie Sociale : contextes et régulation
255 CSUN - California State University [Northridge]
256 FUKL - Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz = Konrad Lorenz University Foundation
257 University of Denver
258 HSG - University of St.Gallen
259 University of Auckland [Auckland]
260 Temple University [Philadelphia]
261 University of Aberdeen
262 UZH - Universität Zürich [Zürich] = University of Zurich
263 CAL POLY - California Polytechnic State University [San Luis Obispo]
264 Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention
265 University of Rochester [USA]
266 NUI Galway - National University of Ireland [Galway]
267 UniOr - Università di Napoli L'Orientale = University of Naples
268 Başkent University Hospital [Adana, Turkey]
269 Franklin and Marshall College
270 VU - Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam [Amsterdam]
271 Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London
272 Michigan State University [East Lansing]
273 JRU - José Rizal University
274 University of Tabriz [Tabriz]
275 JU - The University of Jordan
276 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
277 MSU - Lomonosov Moscow State University = Université d'État Lomonossov de Moscou
278 Stanford University
279 SAMÜ - Samsun university
280 DEÜ - Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi = Dokuz Eylül University [Izmir]
281 USC - University of the Sunshine Coast
282 USC - University of Southern California
283 Oakland University
284 QUB - Queen's University [Belfast]
285 DLSU - De La Salle University [Manila]
286 KU - Kozminski University
287 Università degli studi di Trieste = University of Trieste
288 Üsküdar university
289 Cyprus University of Technology
290 ULISBOA - Universidade de Lisboa = University of Lisbon = Université de Lisbonne [Lisboa]
291 King‘s College London
292 IGDORE - Institute for Globally Distributed Open Research and Education
293 NYU - New York University [New York]
294 UW - Uniwersytet Warszawski [Polska] = University of Warsaw [Poland] = Université de Varsovie [Pologne]
295 La Trobe University [Melbourne]
296 UL - University of Limerick
297 JGU - Johannes Gutenberg - Universität Mainz = Johannes Gutenberg University
298 Lovisenberg Diakonale Sykehus - Lovisenberg Diaconal Hospital [Oslo]
299 LIRNE-EIMA [Kenitra]
300 WKU - Western Kentucky University
301 Swansea University
302 UOC - University of Crete [Heraklion]
303 Harvard University
304 University of Wisconsin-Madison
305 Tufts University [Medford]
306 UoN - University of Nairobi
307 University of Virginia
308 Penn State Harrisburg
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Résumé
Finding communication strategies that effectively motivate social distancing continues to be a global public health priority during the COVID-19 pandemic. This cross-country, preregistered experiment ( n = 25,718 from 89 countries) tested hypotheses concerning generalizable positive and negative outcomes of social distancing messages that promoted personal agency and reflective choices (i.e., an autonomy-supportive message) or were restrictive and shaming (i.e., a controlling message) compared with no message at all. Results partially supported experimental hypotheses in that the controlling message increased controlled motivation (a poorly internalized form of motivation relying on shame, guilt, and fear of social consequences) relative to no message. On the other hand, the autonomy-supportive message lowered feelings of defiance compared with the controlling message, but the controlling message did not differ from receiving no message at all. Unexpectedly, messages did not influence autonomous motivation (a highly internalized form of motivation relying on one’s core values) or behavioral intentions. Results supported hypothesized associations between people’s existing autonomous and controlled motivations and self-reported behavioral intentions to engage in social distancing. Controlled motivation was associated with more defiance and less long-term behavioral intention to engage in social distancing, whereas autonomous motivation was associated with less defiance and more short- and long-term intentions to social distance. Overall, this work highlights the potential harm of using shaming and pressuring language in public health communication, with implications for the current and future global health challenges.
Domaines
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