Widows, Status, and Households among the French Immigrants in California, 1880-1940
Résumé
French immigrant women who settled into California between 1880 and 1940 married French men from their region of origin (endogamy) who after years of hard work became self-employed raisers, ranchers, farmers, or business owners. In the context of their businesses, these men got their wives involved in the management of the family activities, usually as joint tenants (equal partners and associates). Subsequently, because of the large age difference between spouses, many of the French immigrant women became young widows in charge of the family business. Upon their husband’s death, the widows assumed headship of the household in charge of a residential group which comprised the children (single or married), other relatives, and/or unrelated members. The questions which this paper will address are the following ones: In what capacity did these women assume headship? What was their professional status? And for how long did they keep their position as head of housholds? According to Steve Ruggles, these complex household forms were not uncommon in the United States in the period, when many widows did not necessarily end up as dependent mothers or mothers-in-law, fully taken care of by one of the children (known as the dependency paradigm). Other questions must be addressed on the economic, social, and cultural relevancy of these household practices? Did the French households structure in complex forms by necessity (especially economic ones) or as a result of inherited cultural practices which had been perpetuated in France for centuries? Was female headship the result of transcultural transfers from France to the United States or the result of an adaptation behavior?