Late Antique East Roman Diplomacy
Résumé
Late antique diplomacy was a complex system of methods and instruments, governed by elaborate protocol, rich in ceremony, and based on a strict hierarchy of partners and adversaries. While the decision‐making power mainly belonged to the emperor, diplomatic communication was mostly indirect, mediated by traveling embassies. High‐level negotiations were split into several phases and organized in series (“blocks”) of exchanged embassies. The system of gift exchange functioned in accordance with the “block” principle of embassy exchange. Gifts were perceived as indicators of the status and prestige of diplomatic partners. Mistakes in gift‐distribution could lead to international conflicts. Diplomatic inviolability was not always respected, while diplomatic missions often involved long and dangerous journeys which, however, provided an ideal cover for intelligence‐gathering. Clandestine diplomacy complemented official diplomacy.