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              <p>Parasites are integral components of biodiversity, influencing host populations, food web dynamics, and ecosystem stability. However, they may be influenced by environmental conditions and are increasingly threatened by environmental stressors, including pollution, which can directly affect their survival, development, and reproduction. Despite growing concerns over global declines in parasite populations, little is known about how contaminants influence their fitness in freshwater ecosystems. Here, we investigated the effects of environmental variability, host traits, and pollutant exposure on the fitness and infection patterns of acanthocephalan parasites in chub (Squalius cephalus). Using a mesocosm approach, we examined parasite abundance, size, and reproductive traits in relation to host size, body condition, site of capture, and seasonality. Additionally, we experimentally exposed fish to environmentally relevant concentrations of common freshwater contaminants, including the pesticide imidacloprid, pharmaceutical compounds paracetamol and diclofenac, and the herbicide S-metolachlor. Our results indicate that host size was a key driver of parasite abundance, while parasite size increased over time but was independent of host condition and parasite density. Larger parasites produced more eggs, yet overall reproductive output declined in fish with better body condition and with time. Pollutant exposure had complex effects: chronic imidacloprid exposure (15 ng.g -1 ) reduced parasite size, while acute paracetamol exposure (16 μg.g -1 ) led to larger parasites but completely inhibited egg production. Other pollutants showed no significant effects. These findings emphasize the context-dependent nature of pollution impacts on parasite fitness and highlight the importance of integrating hostparasite interactions into ecotoxicological assessments of freshwater ecosystems.</p>
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