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            <funder>National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grant nos. 42525301, 42430708, 42277092 and 42107126. EPA-Ireland (AEROSOURCE, grant no. 2016-CCRP-MS-31). Department of Climate, Energy and the Environment, Taighde Éireann—Research Ireland under grant no. 22/FFP-A/10611. International Partnership Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. 175GJHZ2022039FN). Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. ZDBS-LY-DQC001). Shaanxi Innovation Team for Science and Technology (2024RS-CXTD-40). New Cornerstone Science Foundation through the XPLORER PRIZE. Hong Kong PolyU Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship (grant no. P0039190). Shaanxi Innovation Capability Support Plan—Youth Science and Technology Star Project (grant no. 2024ZC-KJXX-055). We thank J. Zhao (University of Helsinki, Finland) and Y.</funder>
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                  <date type="datePub">2026-04</date>
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              <idno type="doi">10.1038/s41561-026-01942-1</idno>
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              <p>Despite national variations, current air quality standards worldwide focuson reducing mass concentrations of atmospheric particulate matter tolower public health risks. However, these standards fall short in addressingthe adverse health effects associated with ultrafine particles, which canpenetrate deeper into the human lungs and even pass the blood–brainbarrier. Here we present experimental, model and field data in additionto a lung deposition analysis to show there is a rise in ultrafine particleresulting from the transition to ‘low-smoke’ fuels in the residential sector.These low-smoke fuels, designed to lower particulate mass emissions, haveunexpectedly led to a two-to-threefold increase in the emissions of ultrafineparticle numbers, resulting in a higher contribution to lung depositionparticles than all their smoky counterparts combined. Current air qualitymodels underestimate ultrafine particles by a factor of ten, suggestingan underestimation of the health impacts when only particle mass wasconsidered. These ultrafine particle events contrast sharply with the hazeevents that typically involve larger accumulation mode particles. Ourfindings highlight the urgent need to revise air quality standards to includeultrafine particles, ensuring air quality management strategies reduce massconcentration without the cost of increasing ultrafine particle number.</p>
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