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              <p>Raw materials determine the final composition and properties of a fired ceramic. Distinctive minor (Ca, K, Al, Mg, etc.) and trace elements (Bi, Rb, Sr, Zr, etc.) of the geological context, which give significant signal, permit distinguishing the provenance and the phases characteristic of the firing procedures, thus differentiating different productions of tiles. In many cases, the most sophisticated part of the process is the formulation and fabrication of the glaze, especially the colored areas. Complete tiles, which are coming from identified historic buildings and exhibited in the museum showrooms are better documented concerning their origins rather than the unregistered fragmentary sherds. Therefore, a detailed analytical examination is required for these undefined tiles to identify where they are produced. Systematic studies with spectroscopic methods will lead to a statistical work in addition to the material culture and art historical research in the Islamic period (focused on the 12th and 19th centuries) ceramic art. In this study, three techniques, Raman, portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive (SEM-EDS) spectrometry were applied to reveal the technological characteristics of the glazes and pigments. Raman analysis which characterizes micro-and nanostructures of colored and transparent glazes, opacified or not, was applied to sherds mostly collected before the 1960s, preserved currently at the Louvre Museum 1. These tiles were originated in Anatolia, the Caucasus, Iran, and Central Asia, which are, for most of them, characterized by the application of black lines to separate coloured areas. Similar fragmented sherds which are preserved in the reserves of Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul were also analysed with Raman spectroscopy if either they were produced in the Ottoman territory or if outside 2,3. Chemical analysis of glazes and colored areas were performed with pXRF for the sherds of the Louvre Museum (29 samples) and SEM-EDS for the Topkapi Palace fragments (4 samples). Figure 1 shows the similar sherds from Louvre Museum and Topkapi Palace Museum analysed for comparison. The reliability of pXRF measurements was formerly revealed when compared with the results carried out with SEM-EDS 4. Raman measurements of the collection of Musée du Louvre were carried out in the laboratory with a blue laser excitation and/or on the conservation site with a mobile device equipped with green laser 1. The samples from Topkapi Palace Museum were analysed only with green laser in the laboratory 2,3. Comparison with XRF, SEM-EDS and IB composition measurement is made 5. Three types of glazes were identified (Fig.2a): (i) a lead-rich glaze analogous to that of Byzantine, Zirid to Hafsid and al-Andalus productions, (ii) a lead-alkali glaze typical of the Ottoman productions of Iznik-Kütahya, and (iii) a mixed (poor lead/lead-free)-alkali glaze typical of Safavid productions. Further comparison is made with the data collected with a different mobile XRF instrument on Edirne Mosque tiles 6 (Edirne was the first Ottoman capital) and with those recorded on sherds excavated from Ottoman Iznik kilns 7 (Fig.2b).</p>
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