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                <authority type="institution">Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès</authority>
                <authority type="institution">Université du Québec (Montréal)</authority>
                <authority type="institution">Ministère de l'Education Nationale, de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche</authority>
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              <p>Beliefs about competence can be a limitation for some students and an asset for others in acquiring the basic knowledge that is essential for their academic and social future. The SchoolBias program focused on students' judgments of their academic competence, in particular the difference between their actual potential and the way they evaluate their competence. This difference reflects the self- evaluation bias of academic competence. This bias can be positive (overestimation of competence) or negative (underestimation of competence). The program consisted of two distinct levels of analysis. At an intra-individual level (student), the aim was to gather information about the dynamics of positive and negative self-evaluation biases, and their effects on basic learning at different levels of schooling. At an inter-individual level (teacher judgment), we investigated how teachers judged students who had either positively or negatively biased assessments of their academic competence. Lastly, we extended the study of the impact of these perceptions to other cultures.Twenty-two studies were conducted in ordinary classroom situations. They involved more than 5000 students of various grades in elementary and junior high schools, and more than 200 teachers. They  combined longitudinal (developmental trajectory analyses) and cross-sectional approaches as well as experimental and correlational designs. A method of structured cognitive interviews adapted for children was also used to analyze the thinking patterns of positively and negatively biased students. The study of students' competence beliefs in different cultures (China, France, Canada-Quebec, and Russia) also required a specific methodology for cross-cultural validation of the scales and the material used.First of all, the results of the trajectory analyses showed that as early as the middle of elementary school, students can present a self-evaluation bias in one fundamental subject, without necessarily presenting a bias in other subjects. These results therefore underline the importance of not only considering the self-evaluation bias of academic competence at a general or global level, but also at a specific one. They also indicate that overestimating one's academic competence is beneficial to the student, whereas underestimating it is detrimental to their academic adjustment throughout their schooling. At the intra-individual level, students who overestimate themselves are more motivated, self-regulate well, are more actively involved in their learning, and perform better than their negativelybiased peers. At the inter-individual level, since they appear to be more in line with schoolexpectations, teachers judge them better than others. This pattern is also found in other cultural systems. Finally, we observed that teachers lack the ability to correctly identify  positively and negatively biased students.In conclusion, the results of this research program should encourage education  professionals to better understand the complexity of student self-evaluations of competence, and how they impact the learning process and teacher judgment. It also opens up avenues of reflection for better handling of students with unrealistic negative self-perceptions.</p>
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              <p>Les croyances de compétence peuvent être chez certains élèves un frein et chez d’autres un atout pour l’acquisition des apprentissages fondamentaux indispensables à leur avenir scolaire et social. Le programme SchoolBias s’est focalisé sur les jugements que les élèves ont de leur propre compétence scolaire, en particulier sur la différence entre leur potentiel réel et l’évaluation qu’il font de leur compétence. Cette différence rend compte du biais d’auto-évaluation de compétence scolaire. Ce biais peut être positif (surestimation de sa compétence scolaire) ou négatif (sous-estimation). Le programme comprend deux niveaux d'analyse distincts. A un niveau intra-individuel (élève), il s’agissait de recueillir des informations sur la dynamique des biais d’auto-évaluation de compétence scolaire(positif et négatif) et leurs effets sur les apprentissages fondamentaux à différents niveaux de la scolarité. A un niveau inter-individuel (jugement de l'enseignant), nous avons étudié comment les enseignants jugeaient les élèves ayant une évaluation biaisée, positive ou négative, de leur compétence scolaire. Enfin, nous avons étendu l’examen de l’impact de ces croyances à d’autres cultures.Vingt-deux études, toutes conduites en situation ordinaire de classe, ont été réalisées. Ces études ont impliqué plus de 5000 élèves de niveaux scolaires variés (de l’école élémentaire au collège) et plus de 200 enseignants. Elles ont combiné aussi bien des approches longitudinales (analyses de trajectoires développementales) et transversales que des devis expérimentaux et corrélationnels. Une méthode d’entretiens cognitifs structurés adaptée aux enfants a aussi été utilisé afin d’analyser les schémas de pensée des élèves biaisés positivement et négativement. L’examen des croyances de compétence desélèves dans différentes cultures (Chine, France, Québec et Russie) a également nécessité de mobiliser une méthodologie de validation transculturelle des échelles et plus largement du matériel utilisé. Les résultats des analyses de trajectoires montrent d’abord clairement que, dès le milieu d’école élémentaire, les élèves peuvent présenter un biais d’auto-évaluation dans une matière fondamentale, sans fatalement le présenter dans d’autres matières. Ils soulignent donc l’importance de considérer, non seulement, le biais d’auto-évaluation de compétence scolaire à un niveau global mais aussi spécifique. Ils indiquent ensuite que, toutes choses égales par ailleurs, surévaluer sa compétence scolaire est bénéfique à l’élève alors que la sous-estimer est délétère pour son ajustement scolaire, et ce tout au long de la scolarité. Au niveau intra-individuel, les élèves qui se surestiment sont plus motivés, s’auto-régulent bien, sont plus actifs dans leurs apprentissages et réussissent mieux que leurspairs biaisés négativement. Au niveau inter-individuel, apparaissant plus en conformité avec les attentes du système scolaire, les enseignants leur accordent une plus-value et les jugent mieux que les autres. Ce pattern se retrouve aussi dans d’autres systèmes culturels. Enfin, on observe un manque de discernement des enseignants quant aux élèves biaisés positivement et négativement qu’ils ont du mal à identifier correctement.En conclusion, ce travail invite les acteurs du milieu éducatif à mieux saisir la complexité des évaluations de soi des élèves et leur implication dans les apprentissages des élèves et le jugement des enseignants. Il ouvre aussi des pistes de réflexions pour améliorer la prise en charge des élèves ayant des perceptions irréalistes négatives d’eux-mêmes.</p>
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