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                <term xml:lang="en">Risk assessment</term>
                <term xml:lang="en">Tree ecophysiology</term>
                <term xml:lang="en">Water balance</term>
                <term xml:lang="en">Phenology</term>
                <term xml:lang="en">Frost</term>
                <term xml:lang="en">Drought</term>
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                <term xml:lang="en">Abiotic stress</term>
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              <p>In temperate, boreal and alpine areas, the edges of plant distribution are strongly affected by abiotic constraints. For example, heat waves and drought are major constraints at low latitude and elevation while cold and frost are key factors at high latitude and elevation. Over the next few decades, climate variability is expected to increase, enhancing the probability of extreme events and thus the potential stress imposed by abiotic constraints. Moreover, the likelihood of co-occurring and successive constraints, such as drought and frost, could increase in parallel. It is likely that initial exposure to a first constraint would affect the vulnerability to a subsequent one. Three integrative physiological processes, namely water status, carbon status and the timing of phenological stages, are crucial to understanding how trees will respond to these stress factors. Although these processes have largely been studied alone, in response to a single constraint, their interaction has rarely been investigated. In this paper, we have examined how water and carbon status interact with the growth cycle and affect both the vulnerability and the exposure to climatic constraints via two different focuses: (i) How would the interaction of frost and drought constraints modulate the vulnerability to a subsequent constraint? (ii) How vulnerability to a given constraint and phenology interact? In the light of numerous papers, we suggest that the interaction between frost and drought constraints should in the short-term influence water status and, in the longer term, the carbon status, both consequently affecting further vulnerability, potentially leading to a decline. This vulnerability can also be modulated by a shift in the annual phenological cycle induced by a previous constraint. Furthermore, we have identified significant gaps of knowledge in the ecophysiological tree response to interacting stresses based on three major points: (i) the spatio-temporal variation in carbohydrate composition, fluxes and allocation in relation to environmental drivers, (ii) the spatio-temporal variation in water content, water and osmotic potentials, (iii) the modulation of phenological processes in response to stress. This framework can help to improve the current process based models and to identify interactions that needs to be better described in order to obtain a more quantitative and dynamic view of drought and frost vulnerabilities integrating the life history of the individual plant.</p>
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              <p>Dans les zones tempérées, boréales et alpines, les limites de distribution des plantes sont fortement affectées par les contraintes abiotiques. Les vagues de chaleur et la sécheresse sont des contraintes majeures à basse latitude et altitude, tandis que le froid et le gel sont des facteurs clés à haute latitude et altitude. Au cours des prochaines décennies, la variabilité du climat devrait s'accroître, augmentant la probabilité d'événements extrêmes et donc le stress potentiel imposé par les contraintes abiotiques. En outre, la probabilité de contraintes concomitantes et successives, telles que la sécheresse et le gel, pourrait augmenter en parallèle. Il est probable que l'exposition initiale à une première contrainte affecterait la vulnérabilité à une contrainte ultérieure. Trois processus physiologiques intégratifs, à savoir le statut hydrique, le statut carboné et le cycle annuel de croissance sont essentiels pour comprendre comment les arbres réagiront à ces facteurs de stress. Bien que ces processus aient été largement étudiés isolément, en réponse à une seule contrainte, leur interaction a rarement été étudiée. Dans ce document, nous avons examiné comment le statut hydrique et carboné interagissent avec le cycle annuel de croissance et affectent à la fois la vulnérabilité et l'exposition aux contraintes climatiques. Deux axes ont été explorés : (i) Comment l'interaction des contraintes de gel et de sécheresse module-t-elle la vulnérabilité à une contrainte ultérieure ? (ii) Comment la vulnérabilité à une contrainte donnée et la phénologie interagissent-elles ? À la lumière de nombreux articles, nous suggérons que l'interaction entre les contraintes de gel et de sécheresse devrait, à court terme, influencer le statu hydrique et, à plus long terme, le statu carboné, les deux affectant par conséquent la vulnérabilité, pouvant mener vers la mortalité de la plante. Cette vulnérabilité peut également être modulée par des variations des stades phénologiques induit par une contrainte antérieure. En outre, nous avons identifié des lacunes de connaissance sur la réponse écophysiologiques des arbres à l’interaction de stress à trois principaux niveaux : (i) variation spatio-temporelle de la composition, des flux et de l'allocation des glucides en relation avec les facteurs environnementaux, (ii) variation spatio-temporelle de la teneur en eau et des potentiels hydrique et osmotiques, (iii) la modulation des processus phénologiques en réponse à un stress. Ce cadre peut contribuer à améliorer les modèles actuels basés sur les processus et à identifier les interactions qui doivent être mieux décrites afin d'obtenir une vision plus quantitative et dynamique des vulnérabilités à la sécheresse et au gel, en intégrant l’histoire de vie de la plante.</p>
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